Page 140~141
Introduction
引言
Pterocarpus santalinusL.f.(Red Sanders) is a narrowly endemic species naturally distributed over anarea of about 0.4 million ha mainly in the hilly tracts in Chittoor, Cuddappah,Nellor, Prakasam and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh(IFGTB2011). Thespecies occurs in ‘Dry Red Sanders-Bearing Forest’ which is classified as‘5A/C2 Forest Type’(Champion and Seth 1968). Red Sanders is highly valued forits heavy, dark claret-red heartwood which is yield 16% of red coloring matterto santalin, a natural dye used to color liquors, pharmaceutical preparations,food stuffs, etc. (Ramakrishna 1962; Anuradha and Pullaiah 1998). It isrenowned for its characteristic timber of exquisite color, beauty andsuperlative technical qualities and ranks among the finest luxury wood in theworld which is highly useful for making high-value musical instruments,cabinets, ornamental veneers, toys, dolls and was used in incense.
檀香紫檀在自然界仅分布在安得拉邦的Chittoor、 Cuddappah、 Nellor、Prakasam 和 Kurnool等地总面积约40万公顷的山区。……紫檀因其沉重的深红色心材而价值高昂，含有16%的红色色素，是一种可用于酒类、药物和食品的天然色素(Ramakrishna 1962; Anuradha and Pullaiah 1998)。它以其特有的色泽、美观和良好工艺性的木材而闻名，是世界上最高级的奢侈品木材之一，用于制作高价乐器、柜子、装饰面板、饰品、玩具和熏香。
The Red Sandersis under severe threat in its native range, owing to its endemism to smallarea, poor regeneration and overexploitation due to illegal felling. Despite aban on felling and sale, good-quality Red Sanders are illegally traded sincethey fetch very high price in the global market. Based in the grain type, theRed Sanders trees may be divided into two types in commerce, viz. wavy-grainedand straight-grained which occur mixed in the forest or plantation (Lohidas andDayanand 1984; Dayanand and Lohidas 1988). The wavy-grained variants arepreferred in the global markets and fetch higher price compared tonormal-grained types. State Forest Department of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and AndhraPradesh have raised Red Sanders plantations in several locations other than itsnatural ranges during last 50 years. A few number of tree growers and farmersare also cultivating this species in farm land in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,Orissa and Karnataka and in other states, and about 3000 ha of Red Sandersplantations currently exists (IFGTB 2011).
紫檀在自然界受到严重威胁，源于其狭窄的分布区域、缓慢的更新速度和非法采伐。尽管有禁止采伐和买卖的禁令，优质紫檀仍因其在国际市场的高价而被非法贸易。根据纹理种类，紫檀树在贸易中可分为波纹和直纹两种，在森林和种植园中均有出现(Lohidas and Dayanand 1984; Dayanand andLohidas 1988)。与直纹相比，波纹在国际市场上更受欢迎，价格更高。在过去的50年中，泰米尔纳德邦，喀拉拉邦和安得拉邦的森林管理部门在天然林区之外的若干地方建立了紫檀种植园。在安得拉邦、泰米尔纳德邦、奥里萨邦、卡纳塔克邦以及其它邦，也有一些植树者和农民在田野中种植紫檀树，目前约有3000公顷的紫檀种植面积(IFGTB 2011)。
Through growthrate is reported to be faster under plantations raised in rich soils comparedto natural population(ICFRE 1992), not much information is available regardinggrowth rate of the species according to location, climate and soil outside itsnatural range. The heartwood is the main economics part of the tree in RedSanders. Information regarding extent of formation of heartwood and quality ofheartwood in Red Sanders plantations compared to its natural range is also notavailable. In this backdrop, the current study was conducted to evaluate thevariation in heartwood, sapwood and bark content, and wood density ofplantation-grown Red Sanders trees of various age classes grown in variouslocations across southern India.
虽然有报道称，种植于肥沃土壤的人工林生长速度比天然林快(ICFRE1992)，但是该物种在人工环境下生长速度与地理位置、气候和土壤的关系，并无多少信息。心材是紫檀的主要价值所在。人工林在心材构成和质量方面与天然林对比的信息也没有。在此背景下，本研究对印度南部不同地方不同年龄的紫檀人工林的心材、边材、树皮比例和木材密度进行评估。

Materials and Methods
材料与方法
Reconnaissancesurvey was carried out to find various age class plantations across variousregions in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala states in southernIndia. Various age class plantations available were visited for collection of growthas well as wood data during 2011-2014. Totally, 27 plantations were selectedfrom 9 forest divisions (Table 1). Sampling of the selected plantations wasdone based on the total area of the plantation with at least 3% sampling intensity.
在印度南部的泰米尔纳德邦、安得拉邦、卡纳塔克邦和喀拉拉邦的不同地区展开调查，寻找不同年龄段的种植园。2011-2014年间，我们参观了不同年龄段的种植园，采集生长情况和木材的数据。表1列出了从9个林区中选出的27个种植园。依据种植园的面积进行采样，采样密度不低于3%。
Sample plots ofsize either 50m×50m or 20m×20m(insmall size plantations)dimensions were laid. Quantitative and qualitativegrowth data of trees, such as diameter at breast height (DBH), total treeheight, clear bole height, branching habit, stem form, health, phenology andwood grain pattern, were collected in all the sample plots laid. Red Sanderstrees possess characteristic thick dead outer bark (dead corky tissue) that isblackish brown in color resembling the skin of crocodile. The cracks aredivided into rectangular plates by deep vertical and horizontal fissures.
采样区为50m×50m或20m×20m（小型种植园）。在所有采样区收集了树木的生长数据如胸高直径（DBH）、树木全高、树干高度、分支特性、干形、健康状况、物候现象和木纹图案。紫檀树具有厚的、黑棕色的死外皮（死的软木组织），如同鳄鱼皮。被垂直和水平裂缝划分成矩形块。
The inner barklies next to outer bark. To study the variation in heartwood formation, woodsamples were collected from these plantations using increment borer by laying10m×10m subplots withinall the sample plots and the samples were taken back in airtight container tothe laboratory at the Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding(IFGTB),Coimbatore. Heartwood length, sap wood length, bark thickness and wood densityamong various plantations was studied. The heartwood, sapwood and bark contentwere measured as a percentage of cross-sectional area at beast height. The corewood samples were dried and weighted, and the wood density was calculated asthe ratio of oven-dried weight to green volume. Various climate data likerainfall, minimum and maximum temperatures pertaining to locations ofplantations were obtained through DIVA-GIS to compare these site factors withtree growth and wood parameters measured.
内树皮紧邻外树皮。为了研究心材构成的变化情况，在每个采样区的10m×10m子区块中使用生长锥采集木材样本，样本放入密封容器中带回哥印拜陀市的森林遗传学与树木育种研究所（IFGTB）实验室进行研究。测量心材长度、边材长度和树皮厚度，换算成胸高横截面处的面积比例。髓心部位的木材【原文是corewood，不知如此翻译是否准确，译者注】样本进行干燥和称重，木材密度用绝干重量除以生材体积计算。气候数据如种植园所在地的降水量、最低最高温度通过DIVA-GIS得到，与树木生长情况和木材参数进行比较。

Results and Discussion
结果与讨论
The age ofsurveyed plantation varied from 15 to 94 years across various locations. Detailsof plantations in which sample plots were laid out for testing heartwoodformation, growth data of sampled trees and proportion of sampled trees withheartwood formation are provided in Table 2. The growth data and wood datacollected from sampled trees were also grouped according to the age classes(Table 3). Out of 27 plantations, only five plantations were more than 50 yearsof age. The majority of the plantations surveyed occurred in the age classes of21-30, 31-40 and 41-50 years. Number of trees sampled in 27 plantations (sampleplot size 10m×10m) varied from 2 to 108 based on the size of the plantation areand also stocking of trees. Some of the locations like Kalpudur, Rettapettaiand Ammoor in Tiruvannamalai had large areas of plantation and good stocking;therefore, the number of sample plots was increased. Generally, the Red Sanderstrees attain medium height of 8-10 meters in plantations as well as in naturallocations. However, in some of the high rainfall locations like Palappilly andKodanad in Kerala, the average tree height reached 16-18m at 31 years age. Insome of the very old plantations like Thaniyar in Vellore Division (94 yearsage) and Kodur in Andhra Pradesh (78 years age), the average tree height washigh (Table 2). The average girth at breast height (GBH) varied form 52.0 (in15-years-old plantation) to 4015.75px (in 94-years-old Thaniyar plantation).
不同地区种植园中紫檀树龄的跨度从15年到94年。表2【本文没有表2，译者注】提供了为检测心材形成而划定样本地块的人工林的详细情况、取样树种的生长数据和取样树种构成心材的比例。从取样的树木中收集的生长数据和木材数据按照年龄段进行分组，见表3。27个种植园中只有5个树龄超过50年。被调查种植园的树龄普遍在21-30年、31-40年和41-50年。每个种植园的采样数量根据面积树木总数，从2到108不等。像Tiruvannamalai地区的Kalpudur、Rettapettai、Ammoor拥有大面积的种植园，树木总量也很多，然而采样数量也激增。通常情况下，人工林紫檀树的中等高度为8-10米，与天然林相同。但是，在某些降水量大的地区如喀拉拉邦的Palappilly和 Kodanad，31年树龄的平均树高可达16-18米。在某些非常古老的种植园如Vellore地区的Thaniyar（94年树龄）和安得拉邦的Kodur（78年树龄），平均树高也比较大，见表2。平均胸高周长（GBH）从1300px（15年树龄）到4015.75px（94年树龄）。

The growth datacollected in sample plots of 50m×50m size (data not shown here) revealed thatthe GBH slightly increased linearly with the age. However, the average GBH didnot always linearly increase with the age because of location effect in some ofthe plantations. For instance, in some plantations of 21- to 30-years girthclass, the GBH was higher than that in 31-40 girth class plantations. In caseof Kodur plantations situated at Andhra Pradesh which was about 60 year old,trees had lower girth than those in few of 28-year-old plantations. Therefore,it is evident that location factors and probably density of trees inplantations (stocking) had effect on GBH.
从50m×50m采样区得到的生长数据显示，胸高周长GBH与树龄略呈线性关系。然而某些种植园受到地域影响，平均胸高周长并不总是与树龄呈线性关系。例如，某些树龄21-30年的胸高周长大于31-40年的。在安得拉邦的Kodur种植园，树龄60年的周长比一些树龄28年的还小。很明显，地域因素和种植密度对胸高周长有影响。
The proportionof sampled trees with heartwood is also given in Table 2. In TiruvannamlaiForest Division, Vallimalai (28 years) and Arani (39 years), 57.14 and 79.12%of trees sampled had heartwood, respectively. In Vellore Division, in Kalpudur(40 years age) 96.30% trees sampled had heartwood. In rest of the plantations,all the sampled trees had heartwood. In Tiruvallur Division, in Nemallur (37years) plantation only 75% trees had heartwood. Out of 2 plantations visited inKarnataka, in one plantation an Anakupura, Tumkur (15 years), 66.67% treessampled had heartwood. The heartwood development was found in 15-year-oldtrees, indicating that heartwood in Red Sanders trees is initiated before 15years of age. High tree-to-tree variation within plantations was found forheight, girth and heartwood content.
采样树木中带有心材的比例如表2所示，在Tiruvannamlai林区，Vallimalai 种植园（28年树龄）和 Arani 种植园（39年树龄）中分别有57.14%和79.12%的采样树木具有心材。在Vellore地区的Kalpudur种植园（40年树龄）则96.30%的采样树木具有心材，余下的种植园中，所有采样树木都有心材。在Tiruvallur地区的Nemallur种植园只有75%的树木具有心材。在卡纳塔克邦Tumkur地区的Anakupura种植园（15年树龄），66.67%的采样树木具有心材。在15年树龄的树木中发现心材，表明紫檀在15年树龄以前即开始形成心材。种植园之内，树与树之间的高度、周长和心材比例都有很大不同。

The averagebark, sapwood and heartwood area expressed as percent of total cross sectionalarea of stem at breast height in sampled trees across age classes is providedin Table 3. The mean bark proportion was higher in lower girth classplantations, i.e., below 40-year plantation as compared to plantations above 60years old. Heartwood proportion ranged between 1.52% in 15-year-old plantationto 57.68% in 94-year-old plantation. Sapwood proportion decreased with the age.The above 60-year-aged plantations had an average of 24.55% sapwood. Generally,trees with higher DBH had high heartwood content even when they occurred inlower age classes. Average wood density ranged from 0.841 to 0.940 acrossdifferent age classes (Table 3). Considerable variation was also observed inheartwood content and wood density within trees based on age, growth and location.Heartwood proportion increased slightly with increasing age, while sapwoodgradually decreased.
表3显示了不同年龄段采样树木在胸高横截面的平均树皮、边材、心材面积比例。直径小的树木平均树皮比例较大。心材比例从15年树龄的1.52%到94年树龄的57.68%。边材比例随树龄下降。树龄60年以上的平均边材比例为24.55%。通常，胸高直径DBH较大的树木具有较高的心材比例，即使树龄很小。不同年龄组的平均木材密度在0.841到0.940之间，见表3。根据树龄、生长状态和地域的不同，心材比例和木材密度有相当大的变化。随着树龄增加，心材比例略有增加而边材比例逐渐下降。

Location-wiseand plantation-wise bark, sapwood and heartwood proportions and wood densityare given in Table 4. Considerable variation in wood density in sampled treesacross plantation was observed. Average wood density was relatively lower(0.760 and 0.790, respectively) in Kodanad and Palappilly plantations which arelocated in high rainfall areas of Kerala. However, some of the plantationslocated in drier areas of Tamil Nadu, for example, Malanthur (0.753), Vengal(0.787), Vallimalai (0.776) and Mylapore (0.805) had relatively lower wooddensity. The Nayapakkam (1.03) and Pullarampakkam (1.01) had higher averagewood density which was above 1.0. Very high variations were observed amongtrees within same plantations for wood density, heartwood, sapwood and alsobark contents. The average bark and sapwood proportions were higher in lowerage class plantations and also in trees with lower girth. The heartwood contentwas generally high in higher aged plantations. However, all three plantationsin Banavaram which were aged 23-28 years characteristically had higherheartwood proportions (36.93-47.90%). Two 31-year-old Palappilly and Kodanadalso had higher heartwood proportions (34.11-40.87%). This was mainly due tohigher average DBH of trees. These plantations had higher DBH than many ofolder plantations.
表4给出了各个地域和种植园中树皮、边材、心材比例和木材密度。不同种植园中的木材密度变化相当大。Kodanad和 Palappilly种植园位于降水量很大的喀拉拉邦，平均木材密度较低（0.760和0.790）。然而，一些泰米尔纳德邦干旱地区的种植园也有相对较低的木材密度，比如Malanthur（0.753）、Vengal （0.787）,Vallimalai （0.776）和Mylapore （0.805）。同一地区的Nayapakkam（1.03）和 Pullarampakkam （1.01）却有着高于1.0的平均木材密度。同一种植园内的木材密度，心材、边材和树皮变化非常大。低龄树木的平均树皮和边材比例较大，周长较小。高龄树木的心材比例普遍较大。但是Banavaram种植园中那些树龄23-28年的树木全部具有较高的心材比例（36.93-47.90%）。2个31年树龄的Palappilly和Kodanad种植园也有较高的心材比例（34.11-40.87%），主要是因为树木的平均胸高直径较大。这些种植园的胸高直径比许多古老种植园的都大。

——到此为止。

2楼哪去了？垃圾程序！

辛苦你了。这是我们这些科学派紫檀爱好者的福音。在下对兄弟表示诚挚的谢意！谢谢！

书名：
Wood is Good:Current Trends and Future Prospects in Wood Utilization
编者：Krishna K. Pandey，V. Ramakantha，Shakti S. Chauhan，A.N. Arun Kumar
Variation in Heartwood Formationand Wood Density in Plantation-Grown Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus)
人工林紫檀的心材构成与木材密度的变化趋势
K.Suresh, Maheshwar Hegde, P.Deenathayyalan,P.Karthick Kumar, M.Thangapandi, B.Gurudev Singh and N.Krishnakumar

Abstract Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. (RedSanders) is narrowly endemic to the Seshachalam, Veligonda, Lankamala andPalakonda hill ranges in Andhra Pradesh. The wood and wood products of RedSanders continue to be in high demand and are traded internationally in largevolumes that find use in the musical instruments, furniture, handcrafts,cosmetics, medicine and food industry. Over exploitation without commensuratereplenishment of natural stands and illegal logging has posed a severe threatto the very existence of this precious timber species and classified asglobally threatened in the IUCN Red List. Good-quality heartwood of Red Sandersis illegally traded and fetches very high price in the global market. Asharvest of Red Sanders from natural population may not be sustainable, andfuture plan of harvest of Red Sanders wood and export should be from cultivatedsources. About 5000 ha of plantation of Red Sanders exists in various states inSouth India. Little information is available about the quality and quantity ofheartwood formation in plantations compared to natural populations. In thisbackdrop, the current study was conducted to evaluate the variation inheartwood, sapwood and bark content, and wood density of plantation-grown RedSanders trees of various locations were collected using increment borer basedon standard sampling procedure. The heartwood, sapwood and bark content weremeasured as a percentage of the cross-sectional area at breast height. Wooddensity was determined using core wood samples taken at breast height of thetree. The variation in heartwood content and wood density of Red Sanders werefound to be influenced by age and size of the trees.
摘要：紫檀（檀香紫檀）仅分布在安得拉邦Seshachalam、Veligonda、Lankamala和Palakonda山区。紫檀的木材和木材制品持续供不应求，在国际市场上大量交易用于乐器、家具、工艺品、化妆品、药品和食品工业。对天然林的缺乏补偿过度开发和非法采伐严重威胁到这种珍稀木材树种的生存，在IUCN的红色名录中被列入收到全面威胁等级。紫檀的优质心材在国际市场的非法贸易中价格高昂。从天然林中采伐是不可持续的，今后的紫檀采伐与出口应当基于人工种植。在印度南部各州大约有5000公顷的紫檀种植面积。与天然林相比，关于人工林心材的数量和质量的信息相对罕见。在此背景下，本研究采用生长锥以标准的采样程序对不同地区人工林紫檀的心材、边材、树皮比例以及木材密度进行评估。心材、边材和树皮的比例定义为胸高横截面处所占的面积比例。木材密度定义为胸高处髓心的密度。紫檀心材比例和木材密度的变化受树木年龄和尺寸的影响。
Keywords Red Sanders· Plantation·Heartwood content· Wood density
关键词：紫檀，人工种植，心材比例，木材密度
Institute ofForest Genetics and Tree Breeding. R. S. Puram, Coimbatore 641002, India
作者单位：森林遗传学与树木育种研究所，……，哥印拜陀市，印度